Representation of gender in media

Introduction It is amazing to note that some people spend more time feeding on media content than doing an assignment, exercising or even sleeping. While this may be a leisure activity for some people, the impact of media cannot be underestimated today (Bennett 2005, p. 12). This assessment essay focuses on the issue of gender representation in media, with regard to image, roles and stereotypes.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Representation of gender in media specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Media representation What is media representation? According to media theorists, representation refers to any model in any medium that defines a real aspect, say, people, events, objects, places and cultural identities among countless abstract concepts. Such representation may be written, spoken or expressed in moving pictures. In defining media representation, the end products are also considered through the constructi on of one’s identity. For instance, an issue like â€Å"gaze† may consider how women look at images of women, men at women or even women at men (Bennett 2005, p. 12). An important point to note is that all texts are always constructed irrespective of how realistic they may appear. They do not represent mere recordings or reproduction of pre-existing circumstances that are real (Briggs Cobley 2002, p. 10). Additionally, representations may become familiar and natural when they are used constantly. As a result, such denotations may become acceptable by the general public because of their recurring nature. Although it is never taken with a lot of emphasis, there is always need to interpret representations in order to appreciate the intended meaning. Due to this assumption, most people end up making modality judgments towards various representations through the media. Above all, representation is unavoidable; it always exits even when we have no idea about its existence. As a result, its impact in human life is inevitable. Gender and media representation Gender is arguably the basic element of identification commonly used to categorize human beings as men or women. Nevertheless, the concept of gender is also sensitive and of immense significance in discussing media representation (Laughey 2009, p. 10).Advertising Looking for assessment on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Based on this element, each group identifies its members through similarities that are either inherent or borrowed from the surrounding in order to find a suitable and definitive description. In other words, human beings tend to obey the acceptable definition of man or woman by identifying themselves with certain elements. In the understanding of media representation, it is worth noting that there are several objects, which are usually represented even though they may not necessarily be human (Dines Humez 2010, p. 3). This representation usually aims at giving that item feminine or masculine characteristics. From a simple understanding, masculinity is associated with hard, tough and sweaty issues while feminine objects appear fragrant, fragile and soft. Common objects represented with either a masculine or feminine-touch include but not limited to, smart phones, running shoes, bottled beer, an airline and a sports car. Representation of role models As mentioned above, media plays a significant role in shaping our lives and understanding of what it means to be a man or woman. No one can deny that role models do have impact on millions of people consuming media content (Andrews Jackson 2001, p. 20). Role models are supposed to influence the society positively. Is this how they are represented? Whether in a commercial advert or any representation, prominent people are usually used to define men and women in a different way. It is however important to ask how these role models represent vari ation of men and women. In other words, representation of men and women through the media may not necessarily reflect the identity of an entire generation or society (Bennett 2005, p. 5). In fact, some theorists argue that gender representation is undoubtedly based on stereotypes among various people. At this point, it is imperative to affirm that stereotypic representation of men and women using role models usually exerts negative effects on the society. For example, people tend to identify themselves with particular personalities by emulating their lifestyle in terms of dress code, dietary or even the way of talking (Bucy 2002, p. 20).Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Representation of gender in media specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Media stereotyping Does media represent the true image of men and women? Stereotyping is not a new term in the media industry especially with regard to how men and women are r epresented. In fact, stereotyping in media cannot be avoided and it is a common phenomenon in news, advertising and entertainment industries (Carrington 2010, p. 138). What is not known to many people is the fact that media stereotypes act as hints or codes, which help viewers, listeners or readers to figure out an individual or group of people, with regard to social class, occupation or ethnicity among other aspect of identity. Notably, media stereotypes have a wide range of negative effects. For example, the manner in which men and women are represented may reduce their inherent differences into classes of people defined by simple traits (Giddings Lister 2011, p. 10). Similarly, stereotypes affect the manner in which people perceive life. They change perceptions into realities, such that people may begin to actualize the image represented by the media. In some cases, media stereotypes are used to erroneously justify some positions, say, for leaders in power. This can be misleadin g to the public, as they may adopt a misguided meaning of leadership and power (Carrington 2010, p. 138). It has to be mentioned that groups of people who are prone to being stereotyped usually have minimum or no influence in determining their representation. Based, on this argument, media stereotypes have a significant impact on the society. Women and men representation in media Under normal circumstance, one would expect the media to represent men and women positively. Is this the case? No! From TV shows to fashion magazines on the streets, women have always been represented negatively. Think of advertising agents and women. Almost every advert, whether for cars or food, carries the image of a woman (Cashmore 2006, p. 98). Popular female personalities appear to have peculiar features like extreme thinness, bleached skins and always becoming younger in spite of their advanced age. It is very common to find media adverts or articles influencing women to adopt certain beauty standard s perceived to be more appealing and acceptable than their natural outlook even though some of the conditions may be unattainable (Hills Kennedy 2009, p. 13).Advertising Looking for assessment on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It is viewed that economics of beauty play a major role. By insisting on an ideal figure, body size and skin color, cosmetic and diet industries enhance continuity of their business as they have a ready market (Livingstone 2002, p. 77). Importantly, insecure women are more prone to acquiring these products as compared to those who are comfortable with their body images. In order to achieve these extreme and unattainable standards, most women resort to unhealthy eating habits like induced vomiting, skipping meals or even opting for diet aids (Creeber Martin 2009, p. 5). Magazines, movies and television emphasize the need for ladies to have a thin body, associating it with wealth, prosperity, love and a happy life. Besides body image, media represents women as sex objects. TV, movies and magazines carry ads which imply that a woman’s body is supposed to be sexually active and attractive. In terms of professionalism, women are underrepresented. Mainstream media concentrates on having men as main news presenters while women are allowed to report on minor issues like domestic violence and accidents (Cashmore 2006, p.188). Are men exempted from negative representation? The truth is that men are differently represented in the media. In most cases, men are seen to be in control of others, aggressive, physically appealing and financially stable (Dworkin Heywood 2003, p. 65). This representation has far-reaching implications on the society, as boys and men assimilate what that they consume from the media into their daily lives. They therefore tend to be in control of every situation in life and may resort to aggression in cases where they find resistance, emulating how male characters carry themselves in media (Wenner 1998, p. 27). Male stereotypes in media are grouped into five classes as follows. The joker presents men as people who lack seriousness, while the jock fights in life and finds approval in the eyes of men. On the other hand, the strong silent type portrays a decisive man who is always in control (Rowe 2011, p. 20). The big shot denotes a professionally, socially and economically stable man, in possession of societal dreams like wealth and power. Lastly, the action hero man is angry and violent. All these representations affect the manner in which the society perceives men, how men define their position in the society and how boys define masculinity (Whannel 2001, p. 1). As a major marketing tool, advertising ought to communicate the intended message in the most appropriate manner. As a result, men and women can be used in wooing customers in the business world, in a positive way. However, researchers affirm that most ads designed for men are common during sports shows. Accordingly, women are rarely featured, with stereotypes taking center stage among a few that are considered. In extreme cases, women are represented as gifts given to men who have the capability of choosing the best products on the market (Wenner 1998, p. 27) . With regard to beer commercials, most ads carry slim and white men, who attract women. Additionally, adverts present men as powerful and masculine. They therefore dominate, while women are stereotypically portrayed as slender and on special diet. This approach has negative impact on the society through emulation of certain traits by people who feed on media content. Conclusion From this assessment, it is clear that media plays an immense role in shaping human life, through information. Nevertheless, representation of gender in media is a debatable issue that continues to affect the society today. There is no doubt that some of the vices observed like scanty dressing, poor eating disorders and violence are directly or indirectly propagated by the media through stereotyping; both men and women are victims. Reference List Andrews, D Jackson, S 2001, Sport Stars: The Cultural Politics of Sporting Celebrity, Routledge, London. Bennett, A 2005, Culture and Everyday Life, SAGE, London. Briggs, A Cobley, P 2002, The Media: An Introduction, Longman, Harlow. Bucy, E 2002, Living in the Information Age: A New Media Reader, Wadsworth New York. Carrington, B 2010, Race, Sport and Politics, Sage, London. Cashmore, E 2006, Celebrity/Culture, Routledge, London. Creeber, G Martin, R 2009, Digital Cultures: Understanding New Media, Open University Press, Michigan. Dines, G Humez, R 2010, Gender Race and Class in the Media, Routledge, London. Dworkin, S Heywood, L 2003, Built to win: The female athlete as cultural icon, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. Giddings, S Lister, M 2011, The New Media and Techno-cultures Reader, Routledge, London. Hills, L Kennedy, E 2009, Sport, Media and Society, Berg, Oxford. Laughey, D 2009, Media Studies: Theories and approaches, Oldcastle Books, Harpenden. Livingstone, S 2002, Young People and New Media, Sage, London. Rowe, D 1998, Global Media Sport: Flows, Forms and Futures, Bloomsbury, London. Wenner, L 1998, Media Sport, Ro utledge, New York. Whannel, G 2001, Media Sport Stars: Masculinities and Moralities, Routledge, London. This assessment on Representation of gender in media was written and submitted by user Savannah Giles to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

How to Type a College Paper Tips

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Argumentative Essay Topics on Religion

Argumentative Essay Topics on ReligionIn an increasingly high-stakes world where arguments in the classroom are measured by test scores, it's an excellent idea to tackle argumentative essay topics on religion in schools. It is important to recognize that while there may be an interest in this topic in the classroom, the main reason a student is asking about it is to have some kind of impact on the coursework. If this is the case, the most compelling and effective way to address the issues raised in the discussion is to ensure that the material is used constructively and is not used as a vehicle for the teacher to promote a particular point of view.One of the best arguments against argumentative essay topics on religion is the presumption that religion is in fact not a subject matter that lends itself to argumentative debate. Religion has a rich tradition of religious discourse which was protected and supported for centuries. There was a time when religion was not something that peopl e debated in the classroom. Today, however, with a growing variety of means through which religion can be expressed and shared with others, that is no longer the case.People have historically been attracted to religion for a variety of reasons. It is said that in the old days, religion could be interpreted in a variety of ways that allowed individuals to interpret the meaning of religion according to their own circumstances. Although these interpretations may be difficult to know and interpret, that is why people continue to go to church, pray, go to church services, and get involved in religious circles. They do so because they have tried to find a sense of belonging or a way to explain the nature of the world around them.Today, the emphasis on presenting such forms of interpretation in different styles and presentation formats has become a matter of considerable concern to many educators. While some groups are concerned that attempting to present such content in some other way wil l distract from the purpose of the course, others feel that if a student does not have the opportunity to present religious views and concerns as a representative of their own perspective, they may be less likely to use those views in their own lives and relationships. There is no doubt that such a requirement is in itself challenging. How do you provide an experience of belonging without forgetting to be careful?For argumentative essay topics on religion, the appropriate response is to show the differences between a student's religious views and how they would represent themselves in the world. This may require a student to acknowledge the part religion plays in their lives and develop a sense of respect for that.For those who feel that a student may misunderstand the role religion plays in their lives, it may be a good idea to demonstrate how their religious precepts affect their life. Some religious texts allow students to articulate such thoughts using physical representations s uch as a cross or prayer pillow. Of course, with any task such as this, a student will need to prepare and use their own materials.Religion is not an issue that should be avoided. It is true that for most people, religion is not something that they discuss or understand and that for others, religion is just a set of beliefs and ideas they choose to believe in. No one's religion is right or wrong and no one is forced to accept a particular religion. Religious expressions and views are as valid as those of others and therefore a student should be able to present arguments based on logic and reason in an unbiased manner that encourages the student to answer.In conclusion, argumentative essay topics on religion will always be a challenge, especially for teachers who teach religion courses. However, the greatest challenge comes from the fact that there is now such a broad array of influences on religious belief and discourse that you really can't be sure what your students will bring to the table.

The Basics of Philosophical Essay Topic Name Ideas

The Basics of Philosophical Essay Topic Name Ideas The Debate Over Philosophical Essay Topic Name Ideas The introduction lays the groundwork for the remaining portion of the paper. Following that, have somebody else read your paper. Before you begin to compose your paper, you need to be able to state precisely what it is that you're attempting to show. In actual fact, it's almost sure that the fortress approach won't lead to a very superior paper. While it is clear that essays are an inevitable part of college life, it's the understanding of the tiny essay writing tips and secrets that makes college professors content. Firstly, students have the chance to have a brief break at fixed intervals throughout the year. According to statistics, it is but one reason why most college professors decrease the last grade. Long Vacation Or Short Vacation Essay Some folks feel that students ought to be given one long vacation every year. 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If you wish to earn a superb philosophical paper, then here is a great structure you could utilize. Before you begin to write make an outline of how you wish to argue. At this time you ought to think about the structure of your upcoming essay. Hearsay, Lies and Philosophical Essay Topic Name Ideas There's another aspect to think about when checking your essay language. Another procedure that ought to be observed during the finalization of the essay is to ensure the appropriate language was used. The usage of terminologies will merely contribute to confusing the writer. Your will need t o make use of clear and unambiguous language. Philosophical Essay Topic Name Ideas and Philosophical Essay Topic Name Ideas - The Perfect Combination You just need to go through the whole list given here in order to select a single topic according to your choice and requirement. Instead, you've got to think of your own subject from a massive pool of possibilities. 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What to Look For in a Sample of Reflection Essay

What to Look For in a Sample of Reflection EssayWhile it is often advisable to ensure that your sample of reflection essay is composed by a skilled writer, it can still be advantageous to employ the services of a freelance writer. The nature of a freelance writing service means that they offer a variety of different options, which means you have a greater chance of finding a writer that suits your needs, and one that have a sound grounding in the field of composition.An ideal freelance writer will have a strong knowledge of the creative process and will always be striving to improve at their craft. They will be working on many projects simultaneously, which means you can expect to find writers with a wide range of experience. Their work should be at par with their level of expertise, and their samples should prove to be easy to understand and comprehend.Unfortunately, if you do not pay attention to the web you may find yourself looking for a writer who offers just a few well-written examples, and are not up to developing your project from its conception to completion. When you use a freelance writer, you should expect that they will allow you to keep any changes you make to the sample until the work is complete. This ensures that the project can undergo change throughout the process, without the fear of being charged for changes that do not occur until the end of the project.When you choose a freelance writer, it is important to ensure that they do have a portfolio that can be seen. When you are given a sample of reflection essay to review, it is a good idea to ask to see a sample of work in progress from them, along with a written contract that outlines their payment terms. The contract should state how the writer will be paid, for what they will deliver, and whether you can pick and choose the type of work you want them to do.It is also important to read the contract thoroughly, and ensure that you are completely comfortable with it. In some cases, you may fi nd yourself unable to move forward with the work, and this clause can protect you from losing all income once the project has begun.However, the contract should not include any language that would prevent you from making alterations to the sample at any time, before the project begins. If you discover changes you want made, then they should be made before the deadline has passed. This will ensure that you receive your payments without delay, and that the project does proceed as expected.In particular case, if you are working with a freelance writer, you should be aware that you are not legally obliged to pay them any additional fees if the work is not completed within the agreed timeframe. Your contracts should specify your rights as a client and ensure that you feel fully confident with the work that is being completed by the writer.As a freelancer or independent contractor, you have complete control over how the project proceeds, and how much you receive as compensation for your l abour. With an initial reading of a sample of reflection essay, and a careful comparison with the writer's previous works, you should find the project is easy to navigate through, and with a great deal of confidence.

Franchthi Cave on the Mediterranean Sea

Franchthi Cave on the Mediterranean Sea Franchthi Cave is a very large cave, overlooking what is now a small inlet off the Aegean Sea in the southeastern Argolid region of Greece, near the modern town of Koiladha. The cave is the epitome of every archaeologists dreama site constantly occupied for thousands of years, with wonderful preservation of bones and seeds throughout. First occupied during the early Upper Paleolithic sometime between 37,000 and 30,000 years ago, Franchthi Cave was the site of human occupation, pretty much consistently up until about the final Neolithic Period about 3000 BC. Franchthi Cave and the Early Upper Paleolithic Franchthis deposits measured over 11 meters (36 feet) in thickness. The oldest layers (Stratum P-R in two trenches) belong to the Upper Paleolithic. A recent reanalysis and new dates on the oldest three levels was reported in the journal Antiquity in late 2011. Stratum R (40-150 cm thick), lower part is Aurignacian, upper part Gravettian, 28,000-37,000 cal BPStratum Q (5-9 cm), volcanic tephra representing ash from the Campanian Ignimbrite, Aurignacian lithic materials, rabbit and cat bones, 33,400-40,300 cal BP-Stratum P (1.5-2 meters thick), undistinguished lithic industry, poorly-preserved mammal bone, 34,000-41,000 cal BP The Campanian Ignimbrite (CI Event) is a volcanic tephra thought to have occurred from an eruption in the Phlegraean Fields of Italy which occurred ~39,000-40,000 years before the present (cal BP). Noted in many Aurignacian sites across Europe, notably at Kostenki. Shells of Dentalium spp, Cyclope neritea and Homolopoma sanguineum were were recovered from all three UP levels; some appear to be perforated. Calibrated dates on the shell (with consideration for the marine effect) are in roughly the correct chronostratigraphic sequence but vary between ca 28,440-43,700 years before the present (cal BP). See Douka et al for additional information. Significance of Franchthi Cave There are many reasons why Franchthi Cave is an important site; three of them are the length and period of occupation, the quality of preservation of the seed and bone assemblages, and the fact that it was excavated in modern times. Length and period of occupation. The site was occupied, more or less continuously, for about 25,000 years, during which time came the invention of agriculture and pastoralism. What that means is that changes that were wrought by these phenomenal leaps in human understanding can be traced at one place, by examining differences between different layers. Quality of preservation. In most of the layers excavated at Franchthi cave, remnants of animals and plants in the form of bone, shell, seed, and pollen were preserved. These kinds of artifacts have provided researchers with a wealth of information concerning diet and the course of domestication. Modern excavation techniques. Franchthi cave was excavated in the late 1960s and early 1970s, by the Universities of Indiana and Pennsylvania and the American School in Classical Studies at Athens. These researchers paid attention to stratigraphic layers, and kept much of the faunal and floral materials that would have been ignored or thrown aw ay in earlier times. Franchthi Cave was excavated under the direction of T.W. Jacobsen of Indiana University, between 1967 and 1979. Investigations since then have concentrated on the millions of artifacts recovered during the excavations. Sources This glossary entry is a part of the About.com guide to Upper Paleolithic, and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Deith MR, and Shackleton JC. 1988. The contribution of shells to site interpretation: Approaches to shell material from Franchthi Cave. In: Bintlinff JL, Davidson DA, and Grant EG, editors. Conceptual Issues in Environmental Archaeology. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press. p 49-58. Douka K, Perles C, Valladas H, Vanhaeren M, and Hedges REM. 2011. Franchthi Cave revisited: the age of the Aurignacian in south-eastern Europe. Antiquity 85(330):1131-1150. Jacobsen T. 1981. Franchthi Cave and the beginnings of settled village life in Greece. Hesperia 50:1-16. Shackleton JC. 1988. Marine molluscan remains from Franchthi Cave. Excavations at Franchthi Cave, Greece. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Shackleton JC, and van Andel TH. 1986. Prehistoric shore environments, shellfish availability, and shellfish gathering at Franchthi, Greece. Geoarchaeology 1(2):127-143. Stiner MC, and Munro ND. 2011. On the evolution of diet and landscape during the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic at Franchthi Cave (Peloponnese, Greece). Journal of Human Evolution 60(5):618-636.

About the Civil Rights Cases of 1883

About the Civil Rights Cases of 1883   In the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which had prohibited racial discrimination in hotels, trains, and other public places, was unconstitutional. In an 8-1 decision, the court ruled that the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution did not give Congress the power to regulate the affairs of private individuals and businesses. Background During the post-Civil War Reconstruction Period between 1866 and 1875, Congress passed several civil rights laws intended to implement the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments. The last and most aggressive of these laws, the Civil Rights Act of 1875, imposed criminal penalties against the owners of private businesses or modes of transportation that restricted access to their facilities because of race. The law read, in part:   â€Å"†¦ all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters, and other places of public amusement; subject only to the conditions and limitations established by law, and applicable alike to citizens of every race and color, regardless of any previous condition of servitude.† Many people in both the South and the North objected to the Civil Rights Act of 1875, arguing that the law unfairly infringed on personal freedom of choice. Indeed, the legislatures of some Southern states had already enacted laws allowing separate public facilities for whites and African Americans. Details of the Civil Rights Cases of 1883 In the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, the Supreme Court took the rare route of deciding five separate but closely related cases with one unified ruling. The five cases (United States v. Stanley, United States v. Ryan, United States v. Nichols, United States v. Singleton, and Robinson v. Memphis Charleston Railroad) reached the Supreme Court on appeal from the lower federal courts and involved suits filed by African American citizens claiming they had been illegally been refused equal access to restaurants, hotels, theaters, and trains as required by the Civil Rights Act of 1875. During this time, many businesses had attempted to skirt the letter of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 by allowing African Americans to use their facilities, but forcing them to occupy separate â€Å"Colored Only† areas. Constitutional Questions The Supreme Court was asked to decide the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in light of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Specifically, the court considered: Did the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment apply to the day-to-day operations of privately-owned businesses?What specific protections did the 13th and 14th amendments provide for private citizens?Did the 14th Amendment, which prohibits state governments from practicing racial discrimination, also ban private individuals from discriminating under their right to â€Å"freedom of choice?† In other words, was â€Å"private racial segregation,† like designating â€Å"Coloreds Only† and â€Å"Whites Only† areas legal? The Arguments Presented to the Court Over the course of the case, the Supreme Court heard arguments for and against allowing private racial segregation and, thus, the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1875.    Ban Private Racial Segregation: Because the intent of the 13th and 14th Amendments had been to â€Å"remove the last vestiges of slavery† from America, the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was constitutional. By sanctioning practices of private racial discrimination, the Supreme Court would â€Å"permit the badges and incidents of slavery† to remain a part of Americans’ lives. The Constitution grants the federal government the power to prevent state governments from taking actions that deprive any U.S. citizen of his or her civil rights. Allow Private Racial Segregation: The 14th Amendment banned only the state governments from practicing racial discrimination, not private citizens. The 14th Amendment specifically declares, in part, â€Å"†¦ nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.† Enacted and enforced by the federal, rather than the state governments. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutionally infringed on the rights of private citizens to use and operate their property and businesses as they saw fit.   The Court’s Decision and Reasoning In an 8-1 opinion written by Justice Joseph P. Bradley, the Supreme Court found the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to be unconstitutional. Justice Bradley declared that neither the 13th nor the 14th Amendment granted Congress the power to enact laws dealing with racial discrimination by private citizens or businesses. Of the 13th Amendment, Bradley wrote, â€Å"The 13th Amendment has respect, not to distinctions of race †¦ but to slavery.† Bradley added, â€Å"The 13th Amendment relates to slavery and involuntary servitude (which it abolishes); ... yet such legislative power extends only to the subject of slavery and its incidents; and the denial of equal accommodations in inns, public conveyances and places of public amusement (which is forbidden by the sections in question), imposes no badge of slavery or involuntary servitude upon the party, but at most, infringes rights which are protected from State aggression by the 14th Amendment.† Justice Bradley went on to agree with the argument that the 14th Amendment applied only to the states, not to private citizens or businesses. â€Å"The 14th Amendment is prohibitory upon the States only, and the legislation authorized to be adopted by Congress for enforcing it is not direct legislation on the matters respecting which the States are prohibited from making or enforcing certain laws, or doing certain acts, but it is corrective legislation, such as may be necessary or proper for counteracting and redressing the effect of such laws or acts,† he wrote. The Lone Dissent of Justice Harlan Justice John Marshall Harlan wrote the only dissenting opinion in the Civil Rights Cases. Harlan’s belief that the majority’s â€Å"narrow and artificial† interpretation 13th and 14th Amendments led him to write, â€Å"I cannot resist the conclusion that the substance and spirit of the recent amendments of the Constitution have been sacrificed by a subtle and ingenious verbal criticism.† Harlan wrote that the 13th Amendment did far more than â€Å"to prohibit slavery as an institution,† it also â€Å"established and decreed universal civil freedom throughout the United States.† In addition, noted Harlan, Section II of the 13th Amendment decreed that â€Å"Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation,† and had thus been the basis for the  enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which granted full citizenship to all persons born in the United States. Basically, Harlan contended that the 13th and 14th Amendments, as well as the Civil Rights Act of 1875, were constitutional acts of Congress intended to ensure African Americans the same rights to access and use of public facilities that white citizens took for granted as their natural right. In summary, Harlan stated that the federal government had both the authority and the responsibility to protect citizens from any actions that deprive them of their rights and to allow private racial discrimination would â€Å"permit the badges and incidents of slavery† to remain. Impact of the Civil Rights Cases Decision The Supreme Court’s decision in the Civil Rights Cases virtually stripped the federal government of any power to ensure African Americans equal protection under the law. As Justice Harlan had predicted in his dissent, freed of the threat of federal restrictions, Southern states began enacting laws sanctioning racial segregation. In 1896, the Supreme Court cited its Civil Rights Cases ruling in its landmark Plessy v. Ferguson decision declaring that requiring separate facilities for blacks and whites was constitutional as long as those facilities were â€Å"equal† and that racial segregation itself did not amount to unlawful discrimination. So-called â€Å"separate but equal† segregated facilities, including schools, would persist for over 80 years until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s swayed public opinion to oppose racial discrimination. Eventually, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, enacted as part of the Great Society program of President Lyndon B. Johnson, incorporated several key elements of the Civil Rights Act of 1875.